高中英語語法的總結(jié)
[實例1] 張老師：同學們，我們今天學習定語從句，首先請看幻燈片。
（1）the green team
（2）the team in green
（3）the team who were wearing green
張老師：以上3個例子中的中心詞是什么？
學 生：都是team。
張老師：（1）、（2）、（3）中的team的修飾語分別是什么？它們與中心詞team的位置關系如何？
學 生：分別是（1）green，（2）in green，（3）who were wearing green；其中（1）是形容詞，置于team之前；（2）、（3）分別是介詞短語和句子，都置于team之后。它們都是team的定語。
張老師（總結(jié)）：由此可以看出，定語從句對被修飾詞team的作用與形容詞的效果是一樣的；只不過定語從句必須置于被修飾詞之后，且此處的team被稱為先行詞（antecedent），who是用來引導從句的，所以被稱為關系代詞（relative pronoun）。
然后，張老師又列舉了更多的例句，對定語從句進行更深層次的講解……
[實例2]錢老師：同學們，今天我們來做個游戲。（拿出事先準備好的道具：一男一女兩個布娃娃、一頂紅帽子）
錢老師：Can you tell me which doll is a girl?
學 生：The doll with long hair is a girl.
錢老師（把帽子戴到女娃娃頭上）：What is the girl wearing now?
學 生：The girl is wearing a red hat.句①
錢老師：How do you like the girl wearing the red hat? 句②
學 生：The girl who is wearing the red hat becomes more beautiful.句③
錢老師（把帽子戴到男孩頭上）：What do you think of the boy now?
學 生：The boy who is wearing the red hat looks funny.句④
接下來，錢老師將句①、句②、句③、句④呈現(xiàn)在幻燈片上，開始引導學生認識定語從句。
以上兩個教學實例反映了兩種截然不同的教學理念和方法。實例1采用的是傳統(tǒng)的語法知識講解，張教師引導學生用類比的方法來推出定語從句，通過分析句子結(jié)構(gòu)和成分來認識定語從句，然后重點介紹與定語從句有關的理論知識。而實例2中，錢教師通過游戲創(chuàng)設了一個真實情境，讓學生在操作中關注事物的發(fā)展變化，在動態(tài)中領悟定語從句在表達中的作用，了解定語從句的語言特征。
一、情境教學的理論基礎
1．行為主義心理學把語言看成是一種行為，是一系列的刺激和反應：S1——R1...S2——R2。S1：實際刺激（stimuli），R1：語言替代性反應（response），S2：語言替代性刺激，R2：實際反應。其中，S1就相當于我們語言教學中創(chuàng)設的真實情境，S2則是通過語言表達功能給學習合作者傳遞的虛擬情境，學習者（包括合作者）接受這兩種情境的刺激，完成語言習得的全過程，即R1、R2所表示的兩種反應。
2．情境認知理論認為知識和能力的發(fā)展，就像語言的發(fā)展一樣，發(fā)生于真實情境中不斷進行的利用知識的活動中。該理論“不是把知識作為心理內(nèi)部的表征，而是把知識視為個體與社會或物理情境之間聯(lián)系的屬性以及互動的產(chǎn)物。因此，參與基于社會情境的一般文化實踐是個體知識結(jié)構(gòu)形成的源泉”。該理論反對把知識當作“一個整體的、自足的，從理論上講與學習和使用它的情境相脫離的東西”。因為這樣的知識正如著名的數(shù)學家、邏輯學家懷特海(White—head，A.N．)指出的，是“呆滯的知識——僅為人腦所接受卻不加以利用，或不進行檢驗，或沒有與其他新穎的思想融為一體，因而，當需要用這些知識來解決實際問題時，它們往往被證明是沒有用的。也就是說，情境認知理論超越了傳統(tǒng)的知識觀，強調(diào)知識的情境性、真實性、社會性、應用性、互動性。
3．情境學習觀點重視“知識的情境性”，重視以學習者為中心，使學習者在情境中成為知識意義建構(gòu)的貢獻者。這種教學過程呈現(xiàn)一種情境化的教學條件，提供對學習過程的動態(tài)指導，使學習者通過活動在其中進行知識的意義建構(gòu)。因此，需要教學設計者在教學中開發(fā)、設計綜合的教學環(huán)境，如設計適當?shù)摹扒榫啊保岳趯W生在背景或模擬背景中通過活動進行知識的意義建構(gòu)，同時獲得可遷移的一般技能。
二、語法教學中的情境設置
課堂教學情境的形式是復雜多樣的，它具有真實性與虛擬性、預設性與生成性、個體性與社會性、科學性與人文性、即時性與連續(xù)性等特征。在語法課堂教學中，教師要創(chuàng)設盡可能逼真的、反映知識生成和應用的學習情境，創(chuàng)建良好的實踐場，注重課堂文化的生成，關注課堂情境的細節(jié)，促進學生對知識的意義進行協(xié)商與建構(gòu)。語法教學也應遵循語言規(guī)律，教師應利用豐富的資源為學生學習語法知識創(chuàng)設形式多樣的情境，讓他們在生活化的氛圍中領悟語法規(guī)則的內(nèi)涵并運用語法知識解決實際問題。
1．語言描述創(chuàng)設情境。用語言組織教學是最基本且常用的教學形式，不同的教師具有不同的語言風格和表達方式，有經(jīng)驗的教師能充分利用語言內(nèi)涵豐富的特點為課堂教學創(chuàng)設情境。例如，在教授冠詞的用法時，單憑講解可能達不到理想的效果。教師可以用通俗易懂的語言描述一段場景，幫助學生理解a(an)，the之間的區(qū)別：Jackie was staying in × bed, thinking of the girl he met the other day. It happened on a rainy Sunday towards the end of May. This was the first time that he could not go to sleep until so late. All of a sudden, there came a knock at the door. Recovering from the deep thought, Jackie was shocked to sit up. Afraid to go to answer it, he asked in a low, trembling voice,“Who is it?”...在特定情境描述中，學習者就能自然而然地領悟冠詞使用的適當性。再如，在教授情態(tài)動詞表示虛擬語氣時，如果讓學生直接用下列所給動詞的正確形式填空有一定的難度。If he had worked (work) harder, Bruce would have passed (pass) the final examination.教師可在呈現(xiàn)句子之前交待一種情境，則更有利于學生正確理解。即：Basketball is Bruce’s favorite sport, on which he spends much time. What’s more, news came that the superstar Jordan would come to visit our school before the end of last term. Naturally, Bruce got lost in it. 學生聽了這一番背景介紹，就會情不自禁地說：“Oh, that’s the reason why he failed the exam.”在此基礎上，再去講解例題中的虛擬情境就容易得多。
2． 利用圖片、音像資料創(chuàng)設情境。多媒體技術的推廣和使用為英語課堂教學開辟了新天地，其音像效果更是將枯燥的語法知識講解轉(zhuǎn)化為生動的生活情景，使課堂活動栩栩如生，讓學生在逼真的生活空間中領悟英語語言的魅力和語法知識的內(nèi)涵。分詞的用法一直是高中學生的難點，特別是有關Verb-ing與Verb-ed的區(qū)別總是教學中的重點。其實，在學生了解了分詞的基本用法和特點之后，教師可以制作動畫創(chuàng)設情境。情景1：人民公園的一角，一位老者獨自一人坐在長凳上，一陣秋風拂過，樹上的黃葉紛紛落下；看著徐徐下落的秋葉，老者不由嘆息一聲。不一會兒，地上一片金黃。就在此時，一位身穿環(huán)衛(wèi)服的中年婦女拿著掃帚奮力地掃著地上厚厚的落葉。當學生都被畫面情節(jié)深深吸引時，教師可以提問：Q1. How do you think the old gentleman feels? Why? 學生回答：S1: He looks a bit upset because of the falling leaves (or: when he sees the leaves falling with the wind). 教師接著問：Q2. What is the woman cleaner doing? 學生又答：S2: She is sweeping the fallen leaves. 由于動畫效果形象地展示了樹葉在不同階段的形態(tài)特征，學生很自然地從中領悟falling與fallen的語用差異。從而推導出：從時間的維度上看，Verb-ing通常表示正在發(fā)生的事，具有動態(tài)特征，相反，Verb-ed一般用來陳述業(yè)已發(fā)生的事，具有靜態(tài)特征。情景2：畫面中一對父子正在做游戲并進行對話。——Father asked：“Have you worked out the puzzle which is puzzling?”---“I don’t understand what you are saying,”answered the little boy, looking puzzled. 父親幽默的問話和兒子困惑的表情將puzzled（與邏輯主語之間存在動賓關系）與puzzling（與邏輯主語之間存在主謂關系）的差異表現(xiàn)得淋漓盡致。
3． 利用實物創(chuàng)設直觀的情境。實物是最常見的直觀教具。實物的運用，打破了時間和空間的限制，使學生坐在教室里就可以認識客觀事物。例如：借助破杯子、壞了的玩具來介紹形容詞broken；用一杯水來體現(xiàn)a cup of；把幾樣東西放在不同的位置來體現(xiàn)in、on、under、behind等一些介詞的含義。再比如：利用照片上人物的位置關系來教授定語從句。Q1: Who is the woman that is sitting between Tom and Roger? S1: She’s Miss Lin, who is our head teacher. Q2: Which is your younger brother among the students in the picture? S2: The boy whose hair is quite long is my younger brother. 教師通過實物這個直觀教學手段，加上自己的語言表述和學生的角色扮演，形成交際的模擬情境和氣氛。通過在設計的情境中進行語言操練，讓學生在輕松、愉快、和諧的氣氛中掌握所學語法知識。
4． 通過師生的角色表演創(chuàng)設情境。課堂上讓學生表演自己編排的小品常常能起到意想不到的教學效果。學生在準備、參與的過程中會充分體現(xiàn)教學目標，以親歷親為的感受去領悟語言語法知識。例如：在教授動詞時態(tài)課上，我讓一組學生表演某同學上學遲到并且在公交車上又坐過站的經(jīng)歷，其他同學根據(jù)他們的表演遣詞造句，并提示學生注意正確使用動詞時態(tài)。下面列出一段較好的描述：He got up at 7:15 this morning. Being late for school, he hurried downstairs and rushed into a bus without having breakfast. On the bus, two women were talking happily in a loud voice. While he was wondering how to explain to the teacher, the two women continued their talk, which made him a little upset. When he was about to stop them, one of the women stood up from the seat which he had been expecting to take since he got on the bus. The speaker’s voice informed the passengers of the next stop “the People’s Square” and the woman got off immediately. He seated himself on it as quickly as he could and the bus started again in a minute. As he was enjoying the feeling of having a seat, the words “the People’s Square” occurred to him. All of a sudden, he jumped up from the seat, looking so worried and regretful, because “the People’s Square” is also his destination stop. 學生隨著故事的發(fā)展，順利地完成情節(jié)介紹，并多次用到動詞的不同形式。在完成了教學任務的同時也讓其他同學在真實環(huán)境下對動詞的變化形式有了全新的認識。再如，在教授直接引語和間接引語這一知識點時，可以讓三位同學進行表演（教師也可參與其中）。
Dialogue 1: Student A (talking to Student B): Will you come here to attend Christina’s wedding next Saturday?
Student C (asking Student B): What did she say to you?
Student B (answering Student C): She asked me if / whether I would go there to attend Christina’s wedding the next Saturday?
Dialogue 2: Student A: I am staying here today.
Student B: Sorry? I could not hear you clearly.
Student A: I said that I was staying here today.
Dialogue 3: Teacher: We must not fall for that kind of trick.
Student A (asking Student B): What did the teacher say just now?
Student A: He warned us not to fall for that kind of trick.
對話1中的變化：come→ go, here→ there, next Saturday→ the next Saturday；而對話2中的時間、地點狀語都未發(fā)生變化。而這種差異正是由于學生扮演的角色不同導致了情境發(fā)生變化造成的。學生只有身處此情此景中才能領悟語法規(guī)則在特殊語境中使用的適當性，處理好一般與特殊的關系。
對話3創(chuàng)設的情境能幫助學生更好地理解To-infinitive在間接引語中的運用。
5． 任務型活動輔助語法教學，讓學生在實踐中領會語法知識，在“做中學”。任務型學習就是以具體的任務為載體，以完成任務為動力，把知識和技能融為一體。在語法教學中開展一些任務型活動有利于引導學生形成“為用而學、在用中學、學以致用”的良性學習循環(huán)和思維習慣。例如：在教授動詞的被動語態(tài)知識時，我為學生布置了這樣的任務：
Project: Writing an instruction to the medicine Aspirin.
Requirements: Present your writing using verbs in passive voice.
隨后，我指導學生為完成任務經(jīng)歷了制定計劃、著手準備、開始創(chuàng)作、呈現(xiàn)作品四個階段。
Planning
·Discuss the following questions in your group before you start writing your instruction:
—— What problems will you probably have when you begin to know about the medicine?
—— Where can you find the information about the medicine?
—— What kind of information should be included in an instruction to medicine?
—— How can you use verbs in passive voice correctly to introduce a kind of medicine?
·Assign roles to each group member and write their names beside the following jobs.
—— Research the usage of verbs in passive voice_________________________
—— Research the style an instruction of products should be written in _________
—— Write an outline for the instruction_________________________________
—— Write the instruction____________________________________________
Preparing
·Members responsible for doing research need to find examples of instructions to medicine. The group should discuss the information found, and decide how the instruction should be written. You may refer to the following resources for information:
—— Internet sites
—— drug store
—— hospital
—— doctors
...
·Those responsible for writing the outline need to make a draft and have it approved by the other members.
Producing
·Group members who are writing the instruction need to follow the outline and the teacher’s requirements.
·All members need to proofread the draft to check if verbs are properly used in passive voice. The final version has to be approved by the whole group.
Presenting
·Choose one member to read the instruction in front of the class.
·Answer any questions your classmates have about your instruction.
· Display your instruction where your classmates can see it so that they can correct your mistakes in using verbs in passive voice.
學生對被動語態(tài)的知識的獲取和用法的掌握貫穿于完成任務的全過程之中，同時，他們對動詞語態(tài)的使用都是為了“做事”的需要，所以，他們很自然地寫出了這樣的句子：The medicine is called Aspirin, which can be used to cure...; only two pills should be taken by adults at one time, three times a day. Dosages for children should be reduced under the advice from a doctor. It is suggested that pills had better be taken before meals. ...
6． 交際性語言提供的情境能使語法學習的目的歸位。言語活動是一種交際活動，語言是一種交際工具。英語教學的目的是把英語作為交際工具來掌握，培養(yǎng)英語交際能力。而人在進行言語交際活動的同時會自覺地理解并遵守語法規(guī)則。所以，用言語活動來教授語法知識既能使學習者習得語法知識，又能達到培養(yǎng)語用能力的目的，是語法學習目的的回歸。
例1：—— How did you sleep last night?
—— Like a log. Never slept ______ .
A. bad B. worse C. well D. better
例2：——____ I didn’t hear you clearly.
—— I was saying that John plays football best in our class.
A. Repeat. B. Once again. C. Sorry? D. So what?
例1中的“How did you sleep last night?”和“Like a log.”表明 “睡得很沉”，而句中“never”一詞決定只有D項才能符合題意。例2中的“I didn’t hear you clearly.”和“I was saying that...”所提供的情境已經(jīng)表明對話雙方有一個共同的前提，即“話沒有聽清楚”，所以用“Sorry?”引起話語的重復。
又如：在向?qū)W生介紹提出建議、對別人的觀點發(fā)表意見等語言知識時，教師應通過設置情景和要求學生完成具體任務，讓他們在解決問題的過程中理解并習得語法規(guī)則和表達習慣。Making suggestions:
(1) Description of the situation: A fat man wanted to lose weight. He went to his doctor for advice. The doctor told him what to eat and to take some exercise.
(2) Requirement: Make a dialogue between doctor and the fat man with your partner with the following expressions: ① I advise / suggest you to do/ that ...; ② My advice to you is... ③ If I were you, I would... ④ Don’t you think it ...⑤ What/How about...⑥Why not...
Expressing agreement and disagreement:
(1) Description of the situation: A debate will be held between Class5 and our class next Friday. The debate question is that staying a teenager forever would be great.
(2) Now, let’s discuss the question and get prepared for it. Here are some useful expressions. ① I agree with you on/that... ② I am of the same opinion (as)... ③ That’s a good point. ④ That’s how I feel (about)...⑤ You’ve got a point. ⑥ I don’t agree. What about...? ⑦ I see things slightly differently. ⑧ On the other hand,... ⑨ Really? I don’t think that... ⑩ I take your point, but...
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